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Reasons for failures:
-Lack of routine oil changes.
-Continued overspooling.
-Defects in manufacturing.
-Ingesting foreign objects (leaking air filters, broken intake pipes, etc).
Coking is another one, but extremely rare. It's when you run the turbo real hot, then immediately shut down the engine without giving it enough cooldown time. Do this over and over again and eventually the oil burns to the turbo bearings. The reason this is rare however is that todays oils are more resistant to coking, and not many people abuse their diesels that bad.
Adding to pocket's post, soot and rust can cause the Variable vanes in VGT turbos to get stuck. Causing low boost, or high boost. The only failure point of turbos that can't be prevented is just the slow wearing of the bearings that is bound to happen.
chips! coking inside charge air cooler! under sized charge air cooler! mechanical failure from the engine! Split seams at the charge air cooler! Fin damage inside turbo! Filter bypass regulator! Bugged up charge air cooler!Oil hole plugged up turbo inlet Stalling the turbo this is when your wheel goes super sonic when the shaft breaks.Foreign material from previous turbo failure!The list goes on and on
Overspeeding due to tuning/modifications. Did this on a Trooper TD, it had a 3" straight exhaust and I wired the wastegate shut. It ran 22psi boost instead of the factory 6psi. Sounded a bit like that truck in Jeepers Creepers, with the turbo screaming like mad. Lasted about 2-3months, then failed. Burned the bearings up, the inlet wheel started scraping the housing, and bad things happened.
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